Global city

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A global city (also called world city) is a city deemed to be an important node point in the global economic system. The concept comes from geography and urban studies and rests on the idea that globalisation can be understood as largely created, facilitated and enacted in strategic geographic locales according to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade. The most complex of these entities is the "global city," whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through socio-economic means.^[1] The terminology of "global city", as opposed to megacity, is thought to have been first coined by Saskia Sassen in reference to London, New York and Tokyo in her 1991 work The Global City,^[2] though the term "world city" to describe cities which control a disproportionate amount of global business dates to at least Patrick Geddes' use of the term in 1915. ^[3]

Contents 1 Characteristics 2 Studies 2.1 GaWC Inventory of World Cities, 1999 2.2 GaWC Leading World Cities, 2004 3 Other criteria 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit] Characteristics

Global City or world city status is seen as beneficial, and because of this many groups have tried to classify and rank which cities are seen as 'world cities' or 'non-world cities'. ^[3] Although there is a general consensus upon leading world cities, ^[4] the criteria upon which a classification is made can affect which other cities are included. ^[3] The criteria for identification tend either to be based on a "yardstick value" ("e.g. if the producer-service sector is the largest sector, then city X is a world city")^[3] or on an "imminent determination" ("if the producer-service sector of city X is greater than the producer-service sector of N other cities, then city X is a world city"). ^[3]

The characteristics sometimes chosen include:

• International, first-name familiarity; whereby a city is recognized without the need for a political subdivision. For example, although there are numerous cities and other political entities with the name Paris or variations on it, one would say "Paris", not "Paris, France".
• Active influence on and participation in international events and world affairs; for example, New York City is home to the United Nations headquarters complex and consequently contains the vast majority of the permanent missions to the UN.^[5]
• A fairly large population (the centre of a metropolitan area with a population of at least one million, typically several million).
• A major international airport that serves as an established hub for several international airlines.
• An advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large mass transit network offering multiple modes of transportation (rapid transit, light rail, regional rail, ferry, or bus).
• In the West, several international cultures and communities (such as a Chinatown, a Little Italy, a Tehrangeles or other immigrant communities); for example, Toronto, Chicago, San Francisco, São Paulo and Vancouver. In other parts of the world, cities which attract large foreign businesses and related expatriate communities; for example, Singapore, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Moscow.
• International financial institutions, law firms, corporate headquarters, international conglomerates, and stock exchanges (for example the World Bank, or the London Stock Exchange) that have influence over the world economy.
• An advanced communications infrastructure on which modern trans-national corporations rely, such as fiberoptics, Wi-Fi networks, cellular phone services, and other high-speed lines of communications.
• World-renowned cultural institutions, such as museums and universities.
• A lively cultural scene, including film festivals (such as the Toronto Film Festival), premieres, a thriving music or theatre scene (for example, West End theatre and Broadway); an orchestra, an opera company, art galleries, and street performers.
• Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach, such as the BBC, Reuters, The New York Times, or Agence France-Presse.
• A strong sporting community, including major sports facilities, home teams in major league sports, and the ability and historical experience to host international sporting events such as the Olympic Games, Football World Cup, or Grand Slam tennis events.

[edit] Studies

[edit] GaWC Inventory of World Cities, 1999

One attempt to define, categorize, and rank global cities was made in 1999 by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC) based at the geography department of Loughborough University. The roster was outlined in the GaWC Research Bulletin 5 and ranked cities based on their provision of "advanced producer services" such as accountancy, advertising, finance, and law.^[4] The GaWC inventory identifies three levels of global cities and several sub-ranks. This roster generally denotes cities in which there are offices of certain multinational corporations providing financial and consulting services rather than denoting other cultural, political, and economic centres. GaWC presents a schematic map of these cities at their website.^[6]

Alpha world cities / full service world cities^[7]

• 12 points: London, New York City, Paris, Tokyo
• 10 points: Chicago, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, Milan, Singapore

Beta world cities / major world cities

• 9 points: San Francisco, Sydney, Toronto, Zürich
• 8 points: Brussels, Madrid, Mexico City, São Paulo
• 7 points: Moscow, Seoul

Gamma world cities / minor world cities

• 6 points: Amsterdam, Boston, Caracas, Dallas, Düsseldorf, Geneva, Houston, Jakarta, Johannesburg, Melbourne, Osaka, Prague, Santiago, Taipei, Washington, D.C.
• 5 points: Bangkok, Beijing, Montreal, Rome, Stockholm, Warsaw
• 4 points: Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Istanbul, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Miami, Minneapolis, Munich, Shanghai

Evidence of world city formation

Strong evidence

• 3 points: e.g. Athens, Lyon, Tel Aviv (for full list see^[7])

Some evidence

• 2 points: e.g. Dubai, Rotterdam, Seattle (for full list see^[7])

Minimal evidence

• 1 point: e.g. Adelaide, Bangalore, Cape Town (for full list see^[7])

[edit] GaWC Leading World Cities, 2004

An attempt to redefine and re-categorise leading global cities was made by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC) in 2004. This new roster acknowledged several new indicators but still retained a stark focus on economics rather than on political or cultural importance. The roster is reproduced below:

Global Cities^[8]

Well rounded global cities

1. Very large contribution: London and New York City.

   Smaller contribution and with cultural bias: Los Angeles, Paris, and San Francisco.

2. Incipient global cities: Amsterdam, Boston, Chicago, Madrid, Milan, Moscow, Toronto.

Global niche cities - specialised global contributions

1. Financial: Hong Kong, Singapore and Tokyo.
2. Political and social: Brussels, Geneva and Washington, D.C.

World Cities

Subnet articulator cities

1. Cultural: Berlin, Copenhagen, Melbourne, Munich, Oslo, Rome, Stockholm.
   
2. Political: Bangkok, Beijing, Vienna.
3. Social: Manila, Nairobi, Ottawa.

Worldwide leading cities

1. Primarily economic global contributions: Frankfurt, Miami, Munich, Osaka, Singapore, Sydney, Zurich
2. Primarily non-economic global contributions: Abidjan, Addis Ababa, Atlanta, Basel, Barcelona, Cairo, Denver, Harare, Lyon, Manila, Mexico City, Mumbai, New Delhi, Shanghai.

[edit] Other criteria

The GaWC list is based on specific criteria and, thus, may not include other cities of global significance or elsewhere on the spectrum. For example, cities with the following:

Large populations, proper and agglomerated Diverse demographic constituencies[9] Based on various indicators:[10] Population, habitat,[11] mobility,[12] and urbanisation[13] Significant financial capacity/output: city/regional[14] GDP[15] Stock market indices[16]/market capitalisation Headquarters for multinational corporations Financial service provision;[17] e.g., banks, accountancy Employment Based on quality of life[18] or city development[19] Based on costs of living[20] Based on personal wealth; e.g., number of billionaires[21] Significant transport infrastructure: Airports with significant passenger traffic[22] or cargo movements Extensive and popular[23] mass transit systems Prominent rail usage[24] Road vehicle usage[25] Major seaports[26] Significant technological capabilities/infrastructure: Prominent skylines/skyscrapers[27]

Significant institutions: Educational institutions; e.g., universities,[28] international student attendance[29] Research facilities Health facilities; e.g. hospitals, medical laboratories Sites of pilgrimage for world religions Hosting headquarters for international organizations Cities containing World Heritage Sites of historical and cultural significance[30] High endowments of cultural facilities: Notable museums and galleries Notable opera Notable orchestras Notable film centres and film festivals Notable theatre centres Sites of major international sports events; e.g., Olympic Games sites[31] Tourism throughput: Visitors Economy Events Site or subject in Arts and Media TV, Film, Video Games, Music Literature, Magazines, Articles, Documentary Historic Reference, Showcase

Selected criteria

Rank	Population of city (proper)	Population of metropolitan area	Percentage foreign born[9]	Expatriate cost of living[20]	Metro systems by annual passenger ridership	Top 10 rail systems by length	Annual by passenger in a single airport [32]	Number of billionaires (U.S. dollars)[33][34][35]	Gross Metropolitan Product at PPPs (Total output; not per capita) [36]
1	Mumbai	Tokyo	Miami	Moscow	Tokyo	London	Atlanta	Moscow	Tokyo
2	Karachi	Mexico City	Toronto	London	Moscow	New York City	Chicago	New York City	New York City
3	Delhi	Seoul	Los Angeles	Seoul	New York City	Tokyo	London	London	Los Angeles
4	São Paulo	New York City	Vancouver	Tokyo	Seoul	Seoul	Tokyo	Istanbul	Chicago
5	Shanghai	São Paulo	New York City	Hong Kong	Mexico City	Madrid	Los Angeles	Hong Kong	Paris
6	Moscow	Mumbai	Singapore	Copenhagen	Paris	Moscow	Paris	Los Angeles	London
7	Seoul	Delhi	Sydney	Geneva	London	Paris	Dallas	Mumbai	Greater Osaka Metropolitan Region
8	Istanbul	Shanghai	Abidjan	Osaka	Hong Kong	Mexico City	Frankfurt	San Francisco	Mexico City
9	Mexico City	Jakarta	London	Zürich	Osaka	Hong Kong	Beijing	Dallas	Philadelphia
10	Tokyo	Moscow	Paris	Oslo	São Paulo	Chicago	Madrid	Tokyo	Washington, D.C.

[edit] See also

• Financial Centre
• List of most expensive cities for expatriate employees
• Megalopolis
• Metropolis
• Primate city

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Repository of Links Relating to Urban Places
• World Cities article by Jennifer Curtis of Charles Sturt University
• The World-System’s City System: A Research Agenda by Jeffrey Kentor and Michael Timberlake of the University of Utah and David Smith of University of California, Irvine
• The State of the World's Cities, 2001, UN Human Settlements Programme
• "U.S. Cities in the 'World City Network'", by Peter J. Taylor and Robert E. Lang, February 2005 (Full Report in PDF)